This is America, Speak English

I totally agree with this poster. I understand that this country is considered a "salad bowl" and that's all fine. But to some degree, the illegal immigrants are getting a little out of control. Unless you're a tourist, there is no reason that you should not be in speaking English. I feel like that picture is from a while ago. It looks older and if you said that kind of thing now I think people would take serious offense to that. In the south, I think there is still very strong belief in that too. It may be offensive, but in my eyes I agree with it.

Pregnant with cancer- healing for two

If I was pregnant and suffering with cancer, I would want the best for my baby. If the treatment for my cancer would affect my baby in any negative way. They always have to take care of the mother first, but in order to do that I would want them to take care of me, but in the best interest for the baby. I think my parents would have a huge influence on my decision. They would really influence my moral decision about it, and my doctors and nurses would influence the medical aspect of it. Depending on how far along with the pregnancy I was, I would abort the baby. If it was way in the beginning I don't think I would have a problem with it. But if I was far along I think the phychological part would be really tough. I'm pro choice anand I know there's not a lot of people who agree with that, and I'm okay with that. The most important people in my life would respect my decision and that's all that matters to me. I don't really care what other random people think. If the patient wanted to do the opposite for themselves I would respect thier decision. It's their own choice and I would just do my best to take care of them and the baby dealing with whatever choice they are making. I would help them through the medical and psychological part the best I could. I would act as thier supporting friend. Because I think everyone needs one of those in the darkest hour.

special senses

Chapter 8 Special Senses
Part A: Vision
1. The eye and vision
a. 70% of all sensory receptors
b. Each eye – over a million nerve fibers
c. Protection for the eye: A bony orbit
2. Accessory structures – not directly involved with actual vision
a. Eyelids and eyelashes: Prevent particles from going into the eye.
i. Tarsal (oil) glands-Lubricate the eye
ii. Ciliary (sweat) glands- Located between the eyelashes
b. Conjunctiva: Membrane lines the eyelids
i. Connects – to the surface of the eye
ii. Secretes- Mucus, lubricates eye
c. Lacrimal = tear apparatus
i. Gland- produces fluid
ii. Canals- drain fluid from eyes
iii. Sac-passage of fluid towards nasal cavity
iv. Nasolacrimal apparatus- empties fluid into the nasal cavity
v. Functions-protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
vi. Properties- dilute salt solution (tears), contains anitobodies and lysozyme (antibacterial), possibly contain hormones (anti-aggressive)
d. Extrinsic eye muscles-six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye
3. Layers forming wall of eyeball:
a. Fibrous outside layer
i. Sclera- “white of the eye”, connective tissue
ii. Cornea- Transparent, central anterior portion, allow for light to pass through, repairs itself easily, the only human tissue that can be transplanted without fear of dissection.
b. Vascular middle layer
i. Choroid- blood-rich nutritive layer in the posterior of the eye, modified anteriorly into two structures
ii. Ciliary- smooth muscle attached to lens
iii. Iris – regulates amount of light entering eye: pigmented layer that gives eye color, pupil= rounded opening in the iris.
c. Sensory inner layer
i. Retina
1. Outer- pigmented layer
2. Inner – neutral layer with photoreceptor rods and cones
3. Optic nerve- signals leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve
4. Optic disc(blind spot)- is where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball, cannot see images focused on the optic disc

ii. Rods = black and white vision
iii. Cones = color vision
1. Fovea centralis
2. Cone sensitivity
d. Lens
i. Normal function
ii. Cataracts
e. Chambers of the eye
i. Aqueous
ii. Vitreous
4. Ophthalmoscope

muscles

Chapter 6: The Muscular System
1. Overview/similarities of muscle tissue
a. Muscles: Are responsible for all types of body movement.
b. Muscle types (Table 6.1)
i. Skeletal
ii. Cardiac
iii. Smooth
c. Characteristics
i. Muscle fiber = muscle cell- Are elongated.
ii. Contraction- Is due to the movement of microfibers.
iii. Prefixes
1. Sarcolemma
2. Sarcoplasm
3. Prefixes: myo, mys = muscle , sarco = flesh
d. Functional characteristics of muscle tissue
i. Excitability(also called responsiveness or irritability)- ability to receive and respond to a stimulus.
ii. Contractility- Ability to shorten when an adequate stimulus is received.
iii. Extensibility-Ability of muscle cells to be stretched.
iv. Elasticity – Ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching.
2. Skeletal muscle
a. Characteristics
i. Attachment- Are attached by tendons to bones.
ii. Cells- Multinucleate.
iii. Striations-Have visible banding.
iv. Control – Voluntary, subject to conscious control.
b. Connective tissue wrappings: Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue.
i. Endomysium – Encloses a single muscle fiber.
ii. Epimysium- Covers the entire skeletal muscle.
iii. Perimysium- Warps around a fascicle(bundle) of muscle fibers.
iv. Fascia – On the outside of the epimysium.
v. Tendon- Cord-like structures, mostly collagen fibers, often cross a joint due to toughness and small size.
vi. Aponeurosis-Sheet-like structure, attach muscles indirectly to bones, cartilages, or connective tissue.
c. Where skeletal muscles attach- bones, cartilages, connective tissue coverings.
3. Smooth muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Striations- lacks.
ii. Shape-Spindle shaped cells.
iii. Nucleus -Single nucleus.
iv. Control –No conscious control.
v. Where- Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs.
4. Cardiac muscles
a. Characteristics
i. Striations
ii. Nucleus-Single.
iii. Cells- branching.
iv. Intercalated discs-Joined to another muscle cells at an intercalated disc.
v. Control-Involuntary.
vi. Where –Heart.
5. Physiology of skeletal muscle
a. Muscle functions
i. Motion of the organism
ii. Maintaining posture
iii. Stabilizing joints
iv. Generating heat
b. Microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle
i. Sarcolemma- Specialized plasma membrane.
ii. Myofibrils-Long organelles inside muscle cell.
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum- Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
c. Myofibrils- Are aligned to give distinct bands.
i. Sarcomere – functional unit of classification- Contractile unit of muscle fiber.
1. Myofilaments(protein)
a. Myosin = thick filaments
b. Actin = thin filaments
2. Striations = patterns of cross stripes (Fig 6.3)
a. A band=Dark band, contains the entire length of the thick filaments.
b. I band= Light band, contains only thin filaments.
c. Z line
d. H zone
e. M line
ii. Ultrastructure and chemical composition of myofilaments (Fig. 6.7)
1. Myosin
a. Two heads
i. Actin binding site
ii. ATP binding site and ATPase- Energy releasing enzymes.
b. One tail
2. Thin filaments = actin + tropomyosin + troponin
a. Two strands of G-actin twisted
b. Two strands of tropomyosin
c. Troponin covers binding sites
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum – transmits calcium to myoplasm when stimulated
d. Generation of action potential across sarcolemma
i. Action potential defined –Electrical event, when stimulus causes sodium to flow, reversing polarity.
ii. Resting potential-At rest, there is a bare zone that lacks actin filaments called the H zone.
iii. Depolarization
iv. Repolarization
6. Contraction of skeletal muscle fiber
a. The neuromuscular junction (Fig. 6.5)
b. The nerve stimulus and action potential-skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor neuron(nerve cell) to contract.
i. The motor unit (Fig. 6.4)- One motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that neuron.
c. From nerve impulse to muscle contraction
i. Neurotransmitters – -Chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse.
ii. Acetylcholine (Ach) – The neurotransmitter for skeletal muscles, attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma, sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium.
d. The Sliding Filament Theory of muscle contraction-Actibvation by nerve causes myosin heads(dross bridges) to attach to binding site on the thin filament. Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the thin filament and pull them toward the center of the sarcomere. This continued action causes a sliding of the myosin along the actin. Muscle contracts.
7. Physiology of skeletal muscle contraction
a. Characteristics
i. “All or none”
ii. Stimulated fibers-Not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval.
iii. Combinations of fibers-Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses.
iv. Graded responses- Different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening. Can be produced by changing the frequency of muscle stimulation, the number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time.
b. Types of graded responses
i. Twitch – Single, brief contraction, not a normal muscle function
1. Latent period, contraction, relaxation.
2. Incomplete and complete tetanus…Tetanus- summing of contraction, one contraction immediately followed by another, the muscle does not completely return to resting state, the effects are added.
ii. Summation –
1. Incomplete (treppe)
2. Fused
iii. Incomplete tetanus- Unfused, some relaxation occurs between contractions, the results are summed.
iv. Fused (complete) tetanus- No evidence of relaxation before the following contractions, the result is sustained muscle contraction
v. Muscle response to strong stimuli- Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated, more fibers contracting results in greater muscle tension, muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of energy.
c. Energy for muscle contraction
i. Initially-Muscles use stored ATP for energy, ATP bonds are broken to release energy, only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles.
ii. After a while-After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized to produce ATP.
iii. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)- Muscle cells store CP, CP is a high-energy molecule, after ATP is depleted, ADP is left, CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP, CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds.
iv. Aerobic respiration-Sugar is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy(ATP), this is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen, a series of metabolic pathways in the mitochondria.
v. Anaerobic respiration/lactic acid formation- Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation, reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen, sugar is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce limited ATP. This reaction is not as efficient, but it fast.
vi. Muscle fatigue/oxygen debt-Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue. When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract even with a stimulus. Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt. Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove oxygen deficit(heavy breathing). Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid, increasing acidity(from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes the muscle to contract less.
vii. Isotonic contractions- Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions, the muscle shortens and movement occurs.
viii. Isometric contractions- Tension in the muscles increases, the muscle in unable to shorten or produce movement.
ix. Muscle tone- Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle, different fibers contract at different times to provide muscle tone.
x. Effect of exercise on muscles- Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance.
1. Low resistance (aerobic)(Endurance, biking, jogging): Stronger, more flexible muscles, greater resistance to fatigue, makes body metabolism more efficient, improves digestion, coordination.
2. High resistance (anaerobic)-Weight lifting: increases muscle size and strength.
d. Velocity and duration of contraction
i. Muscle fiber type
1. Slow oxidative fibers – dark meat
2. Fast oxidative fibers – white meat
8. Muscles and body movement – Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an attached bone, muscle are attached to at least two points.
a. Five golden rules of skeletal muscle activity – Table 6.2
b. Muscle attachments
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move, attachment to an immovable bone.
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move-Attachment to a moveable bone.
iii. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
c. Types of body movement
i. Flexion & extension
1. Flexion- Decreases the angle of the joint, brings two bones closer together, typical of hinge joints like knee and elbow.
2. Extension-Increases angel between two bones.
3. Hyperextension- Increasing angel beyond 180 degrees.
ii. Rotation-Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis, common in ball-and-socket joints(ex: when you move atlas around the dens of axis…saying “no”).
iii. Abduction & adduction
1. Abduction-Movement of a limb away from the midline.
2. Adduction- Opposite of abduction, movement of a limb toward the midline.
iv. Circumduction- Combination of flexsion, extension, abduction, and adduction: swing with one end free and one end stable. Common in ball-and-socket joints.
v. Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion
1. Dorsiflexion- Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin.
2. Plantar flexion- Depressing the foot(pointing the toes).
vi. Inversion & eversion
1. Inversion-Turn sole of foot medially(inward).
2. Eversion – Turn sole of foot laterally(outward).
vii. Supination & pronation
1. Supination- Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly(up)….Face up.
2. Pronation –Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly(down)….Face down.
viii. Opposition –Move thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand.
ix. Protraction- Sticking out head or parts of face.
x. Retraction- Pulling in head or parts of face.
d. Types of muscle movement
1. Prime mover = agonists- Muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement.
2. Antagonist- Muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover.
3. Synergist- Muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation.
4. Fixator- Stabilizes the origin of a prime mover (hold a bone still): back muscles for posture.
e. Naming skeletal muscles
i. Direction of muscle fibers
1. Rectus-Straight…crunches.
2. Transverses
3. Oblique
ii. Relative size
1. Maximus-Largest…butt
2. Minimus
3. Longus
4. Brevis
iii. Location
iv. Shape
1. Deltoid-Triangular.
2. Trapezius
3. Serratus
4. Rhomboid
Number of origins
v. Bi -2
vi. Tri-3
vii. Quad-4
f. Location of attachments
i. Origin – anchored end of muscle, doesn’t move
ii. Insertion – anchored end of muscle that does move
g. Action – describes the movement of the muscle (ie. Extensor)
9. Major skeletal muscles of the body & prime action
a. Muscles of the head
i. Muscles of the scalp
1. Frontalis
2. Occipitalis
ii. Muscles of the face
1. Orbicularis oculi
2. Zygomaticus major
3. Levator labii superioris
4. Orbicularis oris
b. Muscles of mastication (chewing)
i. Masseter
ii. Temporalis-Temporal bone
c. Muscles of the neck
i. Sternocleidomastoid-Sternum
d. Muscles of the thorax/breathing
i. External intercostals
ii. Internal intercostals
iii. Diaphragm
e. Muscles of the abdominal wall
i. Rectus abdominis
ii. Transverse abdominis
iii. External oblique
iv. Internal oblique
f. Muscles of anterior thorax/ moving scapulae
i. Serratus anterior
g. Muscles of posterior thorax
i. Trapezius
ii. Levator scapulae
iii. Rhomboid major and minor
h. Muscles crossing the shoulder (arm movement)
i. Pectoralis major
ii. Latissimus dorsi
iii. Deltoid
iv. Rotator cuff = supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
i. Muscles crossing the elbow (flexion & extension of forearm)
i. Triceps brachii
ii. Biceps brachii
iii. Brachioradialis
j. Muscles moving wrist and hand
i. Flexor carpi radialis
ii. Flexor carpi ulnaris
iii. Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis
k. Muscles crossing hip & knee joint (movement of thigh & leg)
i. Sartorius
ii. Gracilis
iii. Quadriceps femoris
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus medialis
3. Vastus intermedius
4. Vastus lateralis
iv. Gluteus maximus
v. Hamstrings (posterior thigh muscles)
1. Biceps femoris
2. Semimembranosus
3. Semitendinosus
l. Muscles of the leg
i. Tibialis anterior
ii. Gastrocnemius
iii. Soleus

bones and the skeleton

5 Bones and Skeletal Tissue

1) Parts of the skeletal system
a) Bones (skeleton)
b) Joints
c) Cartilage
d) Ligaments
e) Subdivisions of the skeleton
i) Axial – central “core”
ii) Appendicular – parts that stick out
2) Functions of the bones
a) Support the body
b) Protect soft organs
c) Allow movement due to attachment to skeletal muscles
d) Store minerals and fats
e) Blood cell formation
3) Bones of the human body
a) Adult skeleton –has 206 bones.
b) Two basic types of bone tissue
i) Compact bone-Homogeneous.
ii) Spongy bone-Small needle-like pieces of bone, many open spaces.
4) Classification of bones by shape
a) Long bones: femur, humerus-Typically longer than they are wide, have a shaft with heads(“knobs”) at both ends, contain mostly compact bone.
b) Short bones: carpals, tarsals-Generally cube shaped, contain mostly spongy bone.
c) Flat bones: skull, ribs, sternum-Thin, flattened, and usually curved, two think layers of compact bone surround a layer of spongy bone.
d) Irregular: vertebrae, hip bones- Irregular shape, do not fit into other bone classification categories.
5) Anatomy of long bones
a) Diaphysis – shaft, composed of compact bone.
b) Epiphysis – knobby ends, ends of the bone, composed mostly of spongy bone.
c) Diaphysis features:
i) Periosteum- Outside covering of the diaphysis, fibrous connective tissue membrane.
ii) Sharpey’s fibers- Secure periosteum to underlying bone.
iii) Arteries & veins- Supply bone cells with nutrients.
iv) Medullary cavity- Cavity inside of the shaft, contains yellow marrow(mostly fat) in adults, contains red marrow(for blood cell formation) in infants.
d) Epiphysis features
i) Articular cartilage- Covers the external surface of the epiphyses, made of hyaline cartilage, decreases friction at joint surfaces.
ii) Epiphyseal plate- Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young, growing bone.
iii) Epiphyseal line- Remnant of the epiphyseal plate, seen in adults.
6) Bone markings
a) Surface features- Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments, passages for nerves and blood vessels.
b) Categories of bone markings
i) Projections or processes- Grow out from the bone surface.
ii) Depressions or cavities- Indentations.
iii) Table 5.1A
7) Microscopic anatomy of bones
a) Osteon = Haversian system-A unit of bone containing central canal and matrix rings.
b) Central = Haversian canal- Opening in the center of an osteon, carries blood vessels and nerves.
c) Perforating = Volkman’s canal- Canal perpendicular to the central canal, carries blood vessels and nerves.
d) Lacunae: concentric rings- Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes), arranged in concentric rings.
e) Lamellae: sites of lacunae- Rings around the central canal, sites of lacunae.
f) Canaliculi: tiny canals from central canal from lacunae- Tiny canals, radiate from the central canal to lacunae, form a transport system connecting all bone cells to a nutrient supply.
8) Formation of human skeleton
a) In embryos- The skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage.
b) During development- During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone.
c) Cartilage remaining in isolated areas:- Bridge of nose, parts of ribs, joints.
9) Bone growth
a) Lengthwise growth from epiphyseal plates- Allow for lengthwise growth of long bones during childhood.
i) New cartilage- Is continuously formed.
ii) Old cartilage- Older cartilage become ossified: 1.) cartilage is broken down, 2.) enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a medullary cavity (middle canal), 3.) bones replaces cartilage through the action of osteoblasts.
b) Bone remodeling- Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops, bones are remodeled in response to two factors: blood calcium levels & pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton.
c) Appositional growth = growth in width
10) Types of bone cells
a) Osteocytes- Mature bone cells.
b) Osteoblasts- Bone- forming cells.
c) Osteoclasts- Bone- destroying cells.
Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium in response to parathyroid hormone.
11) Bone fractures
a) Types
i) Closed(simple fracture)- Break that does not penetrate the skin.
ii) Open(compound fracture)- Broken bone penetrates through the skin.
b) Treatment-Bone fractures by reduction and immobilization.
c) Table 5.2
d) Repair
i) Hematoma- Blood filled swelling is formed.
ii) Fibrocartilage- Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus.
iii) Bony callus- Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus. Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch.
12) Axial skeleton – longitudinal axis of body
a) Skull
i) Cranium
ii) Facial bones
iii) Sutures
iv) Mandible
v) Bones of the skull
vi) Paranasal sinuses
(1) Functions
vii) Hyoid bone- Only bone that does not articulate with any other bone, serves as a moveable base for the tongue, aids in swallowing speech.
b) Fetal skeleton
c) Skull proportions- The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s total body length.
d) Fontanel – Fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones, allow brain to grow, convert to bone within 24 months after birth, allow skull to “squeeze” during birth
13) Vertebral column: Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
a) Typical vertebrae structures-24 single vertebrae bones separated by intervertebral discs.
b) Cervical = neck- Seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck.(C1-C7)
i) Atlas
ii) Axis
c) Thoracic = chest- Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region.(T1-T12)
d) Lumbar = lower back- Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with the lower back.(L1- L5)
e) Composite vertebrae- Formed by nine vertebrae fused together.
i) Sacrum
ii) Coccyx(tail bone)
f) Curvatures-Spine has a normal curvature:
i) Primary- Are the spinal curvatures of the thoracic and sacral regions, present form birth.
ii) Secondary- Are the spinal curvature of the cervical and lumbar regions, develops after birth.
iii) Abnormalities
(1) Scoliosis
(2) Lordosis
(3) Kyphosis
g) Bony thorax
i) Sternum
ii) Costal cartilage
iii) Ribs
(1) True
(2) False
(3) Floating
iv) Vertebrae – facets for ribs
14) Appendicular skeleton – 126 bones
a) Pectoral (shoulder) girdle
i) Clavicle-Collarbone
ii) Scapula-Shoulder blade.
iii) Freedom of movement- These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement, but somewhat less support.
b) Upper limbs
i) Humerus-Forms the arm. Single bone
ii) Ulna- Medial bone in anatomical position.
iii) Radius- Lateral bone in anatomical position.
(1) Hand
(a) Carpals- Wrist: eight bones.
(b) Metacarpals-Palm, long bones
(c) Phalanges (phalanyx)- Fingers (digits). #1=thumb- #5= pinky.
c) Pelvic girdle = two coxal bones
i) Total weight
ii) Protects several organs
iii) Each coxal bone made of three fused bones:
(1) Illium
(2) Ischium
(3) Pelvis- The total weights of the upper body rests on the pelvis, it protects several organs, reproductive organs, urinary bladder, parts of large intestine.
iv) Gender differences: Compared to the male, the female pelvis:
(1) Inlet- Female inlet is larger and more circular.
(2) Pelvis as a whole- The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and the bones are lighter and thinner.
(3) Ilia- The female ilia flare more laterally.
(4) Sacrum- The female sacrum is shorter and less curved.
(5) Ischial spines- Female ischial spines are shorter and farther apart; thus the outlet is larger.
(6) Pubic arch- The female pubis arch is more rounded because the angle of the pubic arch is greater.
d) Lower limbs
i) Upper leg- Thigh bone has one bone.
(1) Femur- Heaviest, strongest bone in the body.
ii) Lower leg- Has two bones.
(1) Tibia- Shinbone, larger and medially oriented.
(2) Fibula- Thin and sticklike, lateral to the tibia.
iii) Foot
(1) Tarsals- Two largest tarsals= calcaneus(heelbone), talus.
(2) Metatarsals- Sole.
(3) Phalanges- Toes, #1= big toe, #5= pinky.
(4) Three arches of the foot- Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches. Two longitudinal, one transverse.
15) Joints = articulations of bones.
a) Functions of joints – Hold bones together, allow for mobility.
b) Ways they are classified – Table 5.3
i) Functional classifications- Functionally, structurally.
(1) Synarthroses- Immovable joints.
(2) Amphiarthroses- Slightly moveable joints.
(3) Diarthroses- Freely moveable joints.
ii) Structural classifications
(1) Fibrous- Generally moveable.
(a) Sutures, syndesmoses- Allows more movement than sutures.
(2) Cartilagaenous- Immovable or slightly moveable. Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints.
(a) Pubic symphysis, intervertebral joints
(3) Synovial- Freely moveable. separated by joint cavity.
(a) Joint cavity with fluid- Synovial fluid.
(b) Features- Articular cartilage(hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones, a fibrous articular capsule encloses joint surface, a joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid, ligaments reinforce the joint.
(c) Structures
(i) Bursae- Flattened sacs: lined with synovial membranes, filled with synovial fluid, not actually part of joint.
(ii) Tendon sheath- Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon.
(d) Types – depend on type of movement allowed
c) Inflammatory conditions
i) Bursitis- Inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction.
ii) Tendonitis- Inflammation of a tendon sheath
iii) Arthritis- Inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints: over 100 different types, the most widespread crippling disease in the united states.
(1) Osteoarthritis- Most common chronic arthritis, probably related to normal aging processes.
(2) Rheumatoid arthritis- An autoimmune disease= the immune system attacks the joints, symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints, often leads to deformities.
(3) Gouty- Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of uric acid crystals from the blood, can usually be controlled with diet.
d) Skeletal changes throughout life- Fetus= long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage, flat bones begin as fibrous membranes, flat and long bone models are converted to bone
i) Osteoporosis
ii) Posture

the integumentary system

Chapter 4. The Integumentary System & Body Membranes

1) Body Membranes
a) Functions- Covers body surfaces, line body cavities, form protective sheets around organs.
b) Classification
i) Epithelial
ii) Connective tissue- Synovial membrane
c) Cutaneous = skin- Dry membrane, outermost protective boundary, superficial epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, underlying dermis is mostly dense connective tissue.
d) Mucous = digestive & respiratory interior surfaces- Surface epithelium type depends on site: stratified squamous epithelium(mouth, esophagus), simple columnar epithelium(rest of digestive tract), underlying loose connective tissue, lines all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface(digestive & respiratory systems), often adapted for absorption or secretion.
e) Serous – internal: visceral & parietal- Surface layer of simple squamous epithelium, underlying layer is a thin layer of areolar connective tissue, lines open body cavities that are closed to the exterior of the body, serous membranes occur in pair separated by serous fluids: visceral layer covers the outside of the organ, parietal layer lines a portion of the wall of ventral cavity.
i) Peritoneum-Around the abdominal
ii) Pleura-Around the lung
iii) Pericardium-Around the heart
iv) Synovial – connective tissue only, lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints, secretes a lubricating fluid.
2) The Integumentary System
a) Definition: skin and derivitives-Sweat glands, oil glands, hair, nails.
b) Structure of the Integumentary System
i) Epidermis-Outer layer: stratified squamous epithelium, often keratinized(harden by keratin).
ii) Dermis-Dense connective tissue(mainly collagen)= blisters develop between E & D).
iii) Hypodermis(subcutaneous tissue)- Is deep to tissue, not part of skin, anchors skin to underlying organs, composed mostly of adipose tissue
iv) Strata or layers of the epidermis (See Fig. 4.3)
(a) Stratum basale (germinating layer)-Deepest layer of epidermis, lies next to dermis, cells undergoing mitosis, daughter cells are puches upward to become more superficial layers.
(b) Stratum spinosum (prickly layer)- Becoming more squamous.
(c) Stratum granulosum (granular layer)-Becoming imbedded with keratin.
(d) Stratum lucidum (clear layer)-Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata, occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of feet.
(e) Stratum corneum (horny layer)- Outermost layer of epidermis, ¾ of its thickness, shingle-like dead cells are filled with karatin(protective protein prevents water loss from skin)
v) Melanin(pigment)- Produced by melanocytes. Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale, color is yellow to brown to black, amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics and exposure to sunlight. Albino=no melanin.
(1) The Dermis (See Fig. 4.4)
(2) Characteristics-Collagen and elastic fibers located throughout the dermis.
(3) Layers of the dermis
vi) Papillary layer(upper dermal region)= projections called dermal papillae, some contain capillary loops, other house pain receptors and touch receptors.
vii) Dermal papillae
viii) Reticular layer(deepest skin layer)= blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, deep pressure receptors.
(1) Collagen & elastic Collagen=toughness, Elastic= elasticity.
(2) Blood vessels-Play a role in body tempurature
ix) Hypodermis
3) Skin Color
a) Pigments
i) Melanin-Yellow, brown, or black pigments
ii) Carotene-Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
iii) Hemoglobin-Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries, oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring

4) Appendages of the skin
a) Glands (See Fig. 4.6)
i) Sebaceous or oil glands-Produce oil: lubricant for skin, prevents brittle hair, kills bacteria, most ducts that empty into hair follicles; others open directly onto skin surface, glands are activated at puberty.
(1) Sebum
ii) Sweat glands-Produce sweat, widely distributed in skin. Odor is from breakdown by associated bacteria. Two types:
(1) Merocrine or ecrine-Open via duct to pore on skin surface, all over body, produce sweat.
(2) Apocrine-Ducts empty into hair follicles, axillary & genital areas, mysterious
(3) Composition-Mostly water, salts and vitamin C, some metabolic waste, fatty acids and proteins(appocrine only)
(4) Function-Helps dissipate excess heat, excretes waste products, acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth.
(5) Ceruminous glands
(6) Mammary glands
b) Nails (See Fig. 4.9)-Scale-like modifications of the epidermis, heavily keratinized. Stratum basal extends beneath the nail bed=responsible for growth, lack of pigment makes them colorless. Free edge,body is the visible attached portion, root of nail embedded in skin, cuticle is the proximal nail fold that projects onto the nail body.
i) Nail bed
ii) Nail matrix
iii) Nail folds
c) Hair (See Fig. 4.7)-Produced by hair follicle, consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells, melanocytes provide pigment of hair color.
i) Structure
(1) Root
(2) Shaft
ii) Arrector pili muscle-Smooth muscle, pulls hair upright when cold or frightened.
iii) Concentric layers
(1) Medulla
(2) Cortex
(3) Cuticle
iv) Hair follicle (See Fig. 5.5)-Dermal and epidermal sheath surround hair root.
(1) Hair bulb
(2) Root hair plexus
(3) Hair papilla
(4) Hair mat
v) Hair thinning and baldness – genetic trait
5) Infections
a) Athlete’s foot(tinea pedis)- Caused by fungal infection
b) Boils & carbuncles-Caused by bacterial infection
c) Cold sores-Caused by virus
d) Contact dermatitis-Exposures cause allergic reaction
e) Impetigo-Caused by bacterial infection
f) Psoriasis-Cause is unknown…autoimmune? Triggered by trauma, infection, stress.
6) Burns-Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals. Associated dangers: dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, circulatory shock.
a) Effect
b) Rule of nines- Way to determine the extent of burns. Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation, each area represents about 9% of total surface area.
c) Classification of burns
i) First degree-Only epidermis is damaged, skin is red and swollen.
ii) Second degree-Epidermis and upper dermis are damaged, skin is red with blisters.
iii) Third degree-Destroys entire skin layer, burn is gray or white.
iv) Critical burns-Over 25% of body has second degree burn, over 10% of body has ten degree burns, there are third degree burns on face, hands, or feet.
7) Skin cancer(is the most common type of cancer.
a) Defined-Abnormal cell growth.
b) Abnormal cell mass
i) Benign-Does not spread(encapsulated).
ii) Malignant-Metastasized(moves) to other parts of the body.
c) Types
i) Basal cell carcinoma-Least malignant(dangerous), most common type, arises from stratum basale.
ii) Squamous cell carcinoma-Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed, early removal allows a good chance of cure, believed to be sun included, arises from stratum spinosum
iii) Melanoma-Most deadly of skin cancers, cancer of melanocytes, metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels, detection uses ABCD rule.
d) ABCD rule
i) A = asymmetry-Two sides of pigmented mole do not match.
ii) B = border irregularity-Borders of mole are not smooth.
iii) C = color-Different colors in pigmented area.
iv) D = diameter-Spot is larger than 6 millimeter(mm) in diameter.

the integumentary system

Chapter 4. The Integumentary System & Body Membranes

1) Body Membranes
a) Functions- Covers body surfaces, line body cavities, form protective sheets around organs.
b) Classification
i) Epithelial
ii) Connective tissue- Synovial membrane
c) Cutaneous = skin- Dry membrane, outermost protective boundary, superficial epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, underlying dermis is mostly dense connective tissue.
d) Mucous = digestive & respiratory interior surfaces- Surface epithelium type depends on site: stratified squamous epithelium(mouth, esophagus), simple columnar epithelium(rest of digestive tract), underlying loose connective tissue, lines all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface(digestive & respiratory systems), often adapted for absorption or secretion.
e) Serous – internal: visceral & parietal- Surface layer of simple squamous epithelium, underlying layer is a thin layer of areolar connective tissue, lines open body cavities that are closed to the exterior of the body, serous membranes occur in pair separated by serous fluids: visceral layer covers the outside of the organ, parietal layer lines a portion of the wall of ventral cavity.
i) Peritoneum-Around the abdominal
ii) Pleura-Around the lung
iii) Pericardium-Around the heart
iv) Synovial – connective tissue only, lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints, secretes a lubricating fluid.
2) The Integumentary System
a) Definition: skin and derivitives-Sweat glands, oil glands, hair, nails.
b) Structure of the Integumentary System
i) Epidermis-Outer layer: stratified squamous epithelium, often keratinized(harden by keratin).
ii) Dermis-Dense connective tissue(mainly collagen)= blisters develop between E & D).
iii) Hypodermis(subcutaneous tissue)- Is deep to tissue, not part of skin, anchors skin to underlying organs, composed mostly of adipose tissue
iv) Strata or layers of the epidermis (See Fig. 4.3)
(a) Stratum basale (germinating layer)-Deepest layer of epidermis, lies next to dermis, cells undergoing mitosis, daughter cells are puches upward to become more superficial layers.
(b) Stratum spinosum (prickly layer)- Becoming more squamous.
(c) Stratum granulosum (granular layer)-Becoming imbedded with keratin.
(d) Stratum lucidum (clear layer)-Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata, occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of feet.
(e) Stratum corneum (horny layer)- Outermost layer of epidermis, ¾ of its thickness, shingle-like dead cells are filled with karatin(protective protein prevents water loss from skin)
v) Melanin(pigment)- Produced by melanocytes. Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale, color is yellow to brown to black, amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics and exposure to sunlight. Albino=no melanin.
(1) The Dermis (See Fig. 4.4)
(2) Characteristics-Collagen and elastic fibers located throughout the dermis.
(3) Layers of the dermis
vi) Papillary layer(upper dermal region)= projections called dermal papillae, some contain capillary loops, other house pain receptors and touch receptors.
vii) Dermal papillae
viii) Reticular layer(deepest skin layer)= blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, deep pressure receptors.
(1) Collagen & elastic Collagen=toughness, Elastic= elasticity.
(2) Blood vessels-Play a role in body tempurature
ix) Hypodermis
3) Skin Color
a) Pigments
i) Melanin-Yellow, brown, or black pigments
ii) Carotene-Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
iii) Hemoglobin-Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries, oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring

4) Appendages of the skin
a) Glands (See Fig. 4.6)
i) Sebaceous or oil glands-Produce oil: lubricant for skin, prevents brittle hair, kills bacteria, most ducts that empty into hair follicles; others open directly onto skin surface, glands are activated at puberty.
(1) Sebum
ii) Sweat glands-Produce sweat, widely distributed in skin. Odor is from breakdown by associated bacteria. Two types:
(1) Merocrine or ecrine-Open via duct to pore on skin surface, all over body, produce sweat.
(2) Apocrine-Ducts empty into hair follicles, axillary & genital areas, mysterious
(3) Composition-Mostly water, salts and vitamin C, some metabolic waste, fatty acids and proteins(appocrine only)
(4) Function-Helps dissipate excess heat, excretes waste products, acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth.
(5) Ceruminous glands
(6) Mammary glands
b) Nails (See Fig. 4.9)-Scale-like modifications of the epidermis, heavily keratinized. Stratum basal extends beneath the nail bed=responsible for growth, lack of pigment makes them colorless. Free edge,body is the visible attached portion, root of nail embedded in skin, cuticle is the proximal nail fold that projects onto the nail body.
i) Nail bed
ii) Nail matrix
iii) Nail folds
c) Hair (See Fig. 4.7)-Produced by hair follicle, consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells, melanocytes provide pigment of hair color.
i) Structure
(1) Root
(2) Shaft
ii) Arrector pili muscle-Smooth muscle, pulls hair upright when cold or frightened.
iii) Concentric layers
(1) Medulla
(2) Cortex
(3) Cuticle
iv) Hair follicle (See Fig. 5.5)-Dermal and epidermal sheath surround hair root.
(1) Hair bulb
(2) Root hair plexus
(3) Hair papilla
(4) Hair mat
v) Hair thinning and baldness – genetic trait
5) Infections
a) Athlete’s foot(tinea pedis)- Caused by fungal infection
b) Boils & carbuncles-Caused by bacterial infection
c) Cold sores-Caused by virus
d) Contact dermatitis-Exposures cause allergic reaction
e) Impetigo-Caused by bacterial infection
f) Psoriasis-Cause is unknown…autoimmune? Triggered by trauma, infection, stress.
6) Burns-Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals. Associated dangers: dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, circulatory shock.
a) Effect
b) Rule of nines- Way to determine the extent of burns. Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation, each area represents about 9% of total surface area.
c) Classification of burns
i) First degree-Only epidermis is damaged, skin is red and swollen.
ii) Second degree-Epidermis and upper dermis are damaged, skin is red with blisters.
iii) Third degree-Destroys entire skin layer, burn is gray or white.
iv) Critical burns-Over 25% of body has second degree burn, over 10% of body has ten degree burns, there are third degree burns on face, hands, or feet.
7) Skin cancer(is the most common type of cancer.
a) Defined-Abnormal cell growth.
b) Abnormal cell mass
i) Benign-Does not spread(encapsulated).
ii) Malignant-Metastasized(moves) to other parts of the body.
c) Types
i) Basal cell carcinoma-Least malignant(dangerous), most common type, arises from stratum basale.
ii) Squamous cell carcinoma-Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed, early removal allows a good chance of cure, believed to be sun included, arises from stratum spinosum
iii) Melanoma-Most deadly of skin cancers, cancer of melanocytes, metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels, detection uses ABCD rule.
d) ABCD rule
i) A = asymmetry-Two sides of pigmented mole do not match.
ii) B = border irregularity-Borders of mole are not smooth.
iii) C = color-Different colors in pigmented area.
iv) D = diameter-Spot is larger than 6 millimeter(mm) in diameter.